The Academy: Personality

The Academy series is our take on some of the key ideas that arise when trying to bridge the gaps between business and education.

In order to drive team members towards high performance, managers need to understand the underlying reasons for another's behavior.

Personality is defined in a variety of ways: an individual’s habitual way of responding; an individual’s behavioral and emotional characteristics, generally found to be stable over time and in a variety of circumstances; stable physical and mental characteristics responsible for person’s identity.  The list goes on.  

Early research into personality defined individual behavior and decisions as a function of a few limited characteristics.  Since then, researchers have identified far more functions for behavior.  However, a basic understanding of this fundamental concept can help to increase a manager's effectiveness.

A note on perspectives: when thinking about personality, it's useful to identify the perspective from which behavior is viewed:

  • Internal: processes within an individual that explain why he/she behaves in characteristic ways
  • External: how the individual is perceived by others with whom they interact (reputation)

The Big Five
The Five Factor model of personality is one of the most recognized.  Developed in the 1970's, it codifies personality along five different spectra:

  • Extraversion: degree to which an individual tolerates sensory stimulus from people/situations
  • Agreeableness: degree to which an individual defers to others
  • Conscientiousness: degree to which an individual pushes towards goals
  • Emotional Stability: degree to which an individual responds to stress
  • Openness to Experience: degree to which an individual is open to new experiences

Locus of Control
A useful heuristic for understanding not just personality but also motivation, Locus of Control is the degree to which an individual takes personal responsibility for their behavior and its consequences:

  • Internal: belief that events and consequences are within control; attempt to exert control over work setting, responds better to incentive rewards
  • External: belief that events and outcomes are beyond personal control

Self Concept
In keeping with the internal perspective, self-concept is one's perspective of self as a physical, social, and spiritual being.

  • Self Esteem: one's sense of worth based on self evaluation
  • Self Efficacy: one's belief in one's own ability to successfully complete a task
  • Self Monitoring: observing one's own behavior and adapting it to the situation
  • Self Management: consciously controlling the learning process of taking environmental cues and adapting cognitive processes

Biases
Two biases are helpful to understand the link between internal and external perspectives on personality:

  • Fundamental Attribution Bias: tendency to attribute behavior of another to that person's personal characteristics, ignoring the impact of external factors
  • Self Serving Bias: tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure (to which one attributes external factors)


Application

Understanding different aspects of personality isn't enough for managers and leaders to drive their teams towards greater effectiveness.  But it's a start.  As a manager, it's your duty to understand the individuals on your team.  How do they deal with stress?  How open are they to change and new experiences?  Do they believe in their own abilities?  Do they read situations well and respond to them in real time?  How do they deal with failure?

Ultimately, one of your goals as a manager is to find and develop those individuals who are capable of managing teams of their own.  You won't know the answer to that and other questions until you take the time to get to know your team, and their unique personalities.


Sources and Resources

Thought Leaders

Resources

  • Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (1998). Organizational behavior. Boston, MA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
  • Natemeyer, W. E., & Gilberg, J. S. (1989). Classics of organizational behavior. Danville, IL: Interstate Printers.

The Academy: Motivation

The Academy series is our take on some of the key ideas that arise when trying to bridge the gaps between business and education.

One of the primary goals of any manager or leader is to determine how best to motivate a team to perform at a high level.  Whether it's towards professional and personal growth, or to achieve difficult business goals, the ability to effectively motivate a team sets apart great managers and leaders.

Motivation is a psychological process that directs goal-based behavior.  As a topic for study, three main forms of motivation have been identified: 

  • Needs Based: the belief that unsatisfied needs drive behavior
  • Reinforcement: the belief that behavior is affected through consequences, both positive and negative
  • Cognition: the belief that behavior is the result of rational choices made among alternative actions

Needs Based
Probably the most recognized model of motivation is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.  As a hierarchical model, Maslow argues that fulfillment of a lower-level need is necessary before an attempt will be made to fulfill the next need in the hierarchy.  His five needs, progressively:

  • Physiological: survival
  • Safety: from physical and physiological harm
  • Love: affection and belonging
  • Esteem: reputation, prestige, and self confidence
  • Self-Actualization: becoming the best person possible

Another well-known needs-based model is McClelland's Needs Theory.  In it, he posits that every individual shows a preference for one of three primary needs and will align their behavior towards meeting the need:

  • Achievement (nACH): to accomplish something difficult on own merits, not due to external factors
  • Affiliation (nAFF): to form and maintain positive, lasting interpersonal relationships
  • Power (nPWR): to influence, teach, coach, influence others to succeed

A final needs-based model comes from Herzberg: the Motivator-Hygiene model.  In it, he argues that there are two spectra along which one is motivated:

  • Motivators: those factors that move the needle from “no satisfaction” to “satisfaction”
    • Achievement, Recognition, Responsibility, Advancement
  • Hygiene Factors: those factors that move the needle from “no dissatisfaction” to “dissatisfaction”
    • Salary, Policies, Manager Relationships, Working Conditions

In his book How Will You Measure Your Life Harvard Business Professor Clayton Christensen makes an elegant transition of this model from the academic setting to the personal one.  Find it on our Resources page.

Reinforcement
The most straightforward version of motivation through reinforcement comes from Skinner.  He argues that behavior is the result of consequences (extrinsic) rather than through thoughts or needs (intrinsic).

  • Positive: people are rewarded for desired behavior
  • Negative: desired performance is rewarded by removing that which is undesirable
  • Punishment: poor performance is punished (opposite of Positive)

A more modern approach to reinforcement comes from Kouzes and Posner.  They posit that contributions should be recognized and rewarded in a personal manner.  They argue that a manager should:

  1. Set clear standards
  2. Expect the best
  3. Pay attention
  4. Personalize recognition

Cognition
Cognition theories of motivation move the conversation from extrinsic forms of motivation to more intrinsic forms.  Vroom's Expectancy Theory of motivation is a logical model that argues that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.  His logically progressive model:

  • Expectancy – the logical belief that effort put forth will directly impact performance
  • Instrumentality – the logical belief that certain performance will result in certain outcomes
  • Valence – the belief that the outcome is valued

 

Application

Modern applications of motivation have moved definitively into the realm of intrinsic approaches.  While extrinsic approaches have their place, it's often easier for a manager to elicit high performance from a team that wants to perform well.  

As a manager, ask yourself: how well do I know my team?  Are they motivated to achieve or are relationships more important to them?  Do I understand what employees need to feel satisfied?  Do I personalize my recognition for my team?

In the end, there's no magic formula that motivates every team to high performance.  The link between motivation and performance is incredibly personal for each team member.  As a manager and leader, it's your responsibility to find the mix that works best for each member of your team.  But first, you have to get to know them.

 

Sources and Resources

Thought Leaders

Sources

  • Kreitner, R., & Kinicki, A. (1998). Organizational behavior. Boston, MA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. 
  • McClelland, D. C. (1976). The achievement motive. New York: Irvington.
  • Herzberg, F.I. (1987), One more time: How do you motivate employees?, Harvard Business Review, Sep/Oct87, Vol. 65 Issue 5, p109-120.
  • Vroom, V.H. (1964), Work and motivation.  Oxford, England: Wiley.
  • Christensen, C. M., Allworth, J., & Dillon, K. (2012). How will you measure your life? New York, NY: Harper Business.
  • Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1987). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.